NAECS/SDE. Newsletters. Summer 1995 Vol.2 No. 3

Published co-operatively by the Colorado, Iowa, and Nebraska Departments of Education

Transitions: A Historical Perspective
Responding to Misinformation About Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Transitions: Current Recommendations

Transitions: A Historical Perspective

Milly Cowles, PhD.

The use of "transitions" as the word to describe the schooling issues and problems children and families face in moving from location to location or level to level or curriculum to curriculum is relatively new. What are "transitions?" Why read or worry about them? What difference does it make to know about them?

First, and very important, educators and parents have been concerned about the effect of change in the life of children throughout this entire century and a lot of important information is available that was written a long time ago (particularly in the 30's, 40's, and 50's). Much of this wisdom is, largely ignored by people who are speaking and writing about transition today. Perhaps the reason that earlier information is not incorporated into current discussions is that words other than "transition" were used by writers when discussing this topic. Current seers can even be quoted as saying that there has been little or no research or interest about this issue in the past.

Primarily the two labels or handles that previously described what is now called transition were "articulation" and "continuity." Articulation was used to describe the events that occur as children move from one level to another, such as from kindergarten to first grade. Continuity most often explained the learning experiences of each child at each level and the individual's moving upward through educational levels in a smooth sequential manner within each part. These two terms were most often used together; statements such as "Children suffer educationally because of articulation and continuity problems that are not being addressed by the school personnel- were common in educational writing. Transitions, now in today's world, refers to both articulation and continuity issues, and it is an important topic that calls for immediate action and attention.

In the earlier years, there was a lot of attention directed to problems learners faced as changes occurred in their school lives. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) Published an informative, most significant, and fascinating yearbook that reported a study involving 3,000 children in 11 states--from Florida to California, from Texas to Oregon, from New York to Minnesota. The research was focused on what children saw as having helped or interfered in their progress in school. Interestingly, they were encouraged to tell about 'anything' that was significant to them.

The problem, areas identified by 453 children in the primary grades (K-3) were as follows:

moving to a new community (mentioned by 35.5% of the students),
moving to a new "school" level (mentioned by 4.0%),
promotion/not getting promoted/even just worrying about it (4.4%),
retention/being retained/worrying,
about the possibility (5.0%),
teacher behaviors (14.3%),
curriculum (16.5%),
rewards (1.4%),
punishment (4.4%),
evaluation (1.5%),
illness (4.3%), and
accidents (2.7%).

More than one-third of the reported events that children believed to have affected them had to do with moving, followed in number by the areas of teacher behaviors and curriculum. While it has long been noted that children may not be able to explain all of their feelings or reactions, it still remains extremely important to find out what they do believe. The ASCD study showed that large numbers of young children identified three categories of events that they thought to have greatly influenced what happened to them in school. The authors urged that principles of growth and development and learning be incorporated into every school, irrespective of level or type, and that educational objectives and curriculum be fit into plans that were designed for children's developmental levels.

Later in the 1960s, after Head Start became a success nationally, there was again an interest in transitions, which resulted in the development of what came to be known as Follow Through programs or models. They have been thoroughly reviewed and analyzed many times; however, it is important here to say that the primary purpose of each one of those well-funded programs was to provide articulation and continuity of learning activities and services from Head Start to the elementary school. Most of the stated concern was in medical, social services, and academic (reading, writing, and arithmetic) transition problems. Yet, only a few years earlier, according to the ASCD research, children's reported issues had been with changes in their own lives, curriculum, and, teachers' behaviors. Now; even more time has passed, and the most recent literature concentrates on issues children face either with leaving preschool for kindergarten, going from Head Start to "real" school moving from childcare to kindergarten, or the mainstreaming of special needs children.

If we combine what is being advocated in the 90's with all of the older work of the past 60 years, it probably is necessary to consider that each child who leaves her home setting for any kind of institutional education and care is the one who has to make the adjustment necessary to function successfully each and every day We know that some changes are hard on anyone of any age, but that of all the ages and stages, children birth through adolescence are the most vulnerable. Of these, the very young are most at risk. Since this is a true developmental statement and not merely someone's opinion, the following five suggestions are examples of steps that will be necessary to support children through the thousands of transitions that are inevitable in all lives:

Fundamental principles of child development must be learned by everyone who works with children, including their own parents or guardians.
Thoughtfully developed educational objectives should be identified for every level of development, age being only one of the considerations.
A new examination of the bases for the organization of the curriculum and of expectations for assessment needs to be grounded on the knowledge of how children learn. We must revisit the historical roots of early childhood care and education and project the future.
Professionals and institutions need to know what was available to the child and what she accomplished (as is reasonable) in all prior settings. Parents and guardians should be given the same information. Parents and professionals alike need to be aware of the "self-fulfilling prophecy."
Professionals should recognize and plan for problems which children are likely to face. Each institution has to be accountable for making life as positive and pleasant as is possible for young children. All available community agencies should be used to assist in the process.

Anytime a person or an institutional setting does not accept children and learn where they are functioning comfortably, articulation, continuity, and transitions are empty, meaningless words. Time and time again, it has been found that children achieve higher in flexible and comfortable settings. Yet, regularly for the past 25 years, expectations of children have become more and more rigid in too many settings. In too many places in which policy is determined about what they are to achieve, there seems to be a lack of knowledge of how children learn.

Unfortunately, for us as educators, we are about the only champions that children have left. The challenge is ours.

Annotated Bibliography

Appalachia Educational Laboratory. Early Childhood Transitions: Preparing Children and Families for Change. (Published in 1995, the newest guidebook, dealing with transitions and containing an excellent bibliography, is available from the Laboratory, P. O. Box 1348, Charleston, West Virginia.)

Kohler, Patty, et al. Transitions Procedures for Preschool Children, DIMENSIONS, Spring 1994. (This is a good review of a school district's work with special needs children; it is available from the Southern Early Childhood Association, P. 0; Box 56130, Little Rock, Arkansas.)

Southeastern Regional Vision for Education. Transitions. (A 37-page document contains an extensive bibliography that chronicles the work that has been done in recent years. It is available at nominal cost from SRVE, 345 South Magnolia Drive, Tallahassee, Florida 32301-2950.)

Swenson, Esther J. (ed). A Look at Continuity in the School Program. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Yearbook, 1958, 307 pages. (This is probably the most extensive look into what children report as problems-in school, and the annotated bibliography reveals the richness of the work done at the time. Anyone interested in transitions will learn a lot from this publication from ASCD, 1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, Virginia 22314-1453.).

Vail, Cynthia O. and Scott, Kristin S. Transition from Preschool to Kindergarten for Children With Special Needs, DIMENSIONS, Spring 1994. (An excellent bibliography/checklist/discussion of transitions is available from the Southern Early Childhood Association-, P. 0. Box 56130, Little Rock, Arkansas.)

Milly Cowles is Distinguished Service Professor and Dean Emerita, University of Alabama at Birmingham, and a consulting editor of Young Children, the journal of the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Dr. Cowles wrote this article expressly for Of Primary Interest and retains the copyright. She may be addressed at 60 Springwater Chase, Newnan, Georgia 30265

Responding to Misinformation About Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Recently advocates have observed an increase in direct attacks against the concept of developmentally appropriate practice as defined by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Some of these critiques have appeared in newspapers, while others have been presented to policymakers. In general, these attacks misrepresent the concept by saying things like NAEYC "prohibits teaching the alphabet or multiplication tables," that children do "whatever strikes their fancy," and that "children will learn to read when they are ready to read." Each of these statements is a distortion of the position statements, and advocates need to be clear about the truth.

First, developmentally appropriate practice does not prohibit direct instruction, nor does it prohibit reciting the alphabet or the multiplication tables. Because we know that individual differences are to be expected, we advocate using a variety of teaching strategies to help all children succeed in school. The concern is when instruction is limited to rote memorization, and children do not demonstrate understanding or the ability to apply the learning in solving problems or in new contexts. Of course, we want preschool and kindergarten children exposed to the alphabet; what we do not want is curriculum that is limited to learning the letters in isolation.

What we find inappropriate for 4- and 5-year-olds is using "whole group, teacher directed instruction almost exclusively or most of the time, or expecting children to do paper-and-pencil tasks for inappropriately long periods of time." The position statements support learning basic skills in meaningful context. The position is opposed to drill and practice on "isolated skills." Teaching basic skills in meaningful context is especially important for preschool children who have not had regular exposure to books and reading in their homes. Similarly, what is individually appropriate for some children may be more structure in which teachers assist them in learning to make decisions and persist with tasks.

The position statement on developmentally appropriate practice for primary grades specifically states, "subskills such as learning letters, phonics, and word recognition are taught as needed to individual children and small groups." It also states, "technical skills are taught as needed to accomplish larger goals (language, writing, spelling, and reading ability), not as the goal itself."

Nowhere does the document advocate children doing "what strikes their fancy." The statement says that teachers prepare the environment and children choose from among a variety of learning areas that the teacher prepares. Teachers are expected to prepare instructionally valuable learning opportunities for children and to facilitate their learning through a variety of strategies. Facilitating learning can take many forms, including, but not limited to, direct instruction. Developmentally-, appropriate classrooms have clear structures in which children know what is expected; learn to work independently; in small groups, and in the large group; and learn to self-regulate their behavior. Children learn from teachers, but they also learn from each other as they solve problems in small groups. Teachers Are expected to provide complex, challenging work for -children.

The statement does not say "children will learn to read when they are ready to learn to read." What the statement calls for is using a variety of strategies, including, but not limited to, phonics, to ensure that all children do learn to read. The document calls for a more flexible timetable for learning to read, so that children who take longer to acquire literacy are not retained in kindergarten or first grade. A large body of research on retention consistently finds that retention does not help achievement.

The document calls for a more flexible timetable for learning to read, so that children who take longer to acquire literacy are not retained in kindergarten or first grade. A large body of research on retention consistently finds that retention does not help achievement.

One of the goals of the revision process to developmentally appropriate practice is to more clearly state some of these points so as to prevent misunderstanding as much as possible. Nevertheless, we know that some people who resist change or who have different goals for children will continue to circulate misinformation. As advocates for children, we have a responsibility to be as clear as possible in stating what we know and believe and to continue working to gain greater understanding among teachers so that their implementation more closely matches the goals.

This article appeared in the Volume 21, March 1995 issue of The Affiliate, a quarterly publication for NAEYC Affiliate Groups, and is reprinted here with the express permission of the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Comments are welcomed and may be sent to NAEYC -Affiliate Services, 1509 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036-1426; telephoned to (202) 232-8777 or (800) 424-2460; or faxed to (202) 328-1846.

Transitions: Current Recommendations

Transitions to School, a publication focusing on recommended practices designed to facilitate a child's movement into kindergarten and the primary grades, has been published by the National Governors' Association. Written by Elizabeth Stief, Policy Analyst for the NGA's Children and Social Services Programs, the report summarizes what is known about successful early childhood transition services and highlights existing, policies and approaches.

In discussing Goal One of the National Education Goals ("By the year 2000, all children in America will start school ready to learn"), Howard Dean, MD, Governor of Vermont and Chair of the National Governors' Association, explains in his foreword to Transitions to School that no one questions the importance of school readiness. Concerns have been voiced, however, about the advisability of focusing solely on the child, when in reality many schools may not be ready for young children.

Dean further writes that:

"there is a growing realization among policymakers that, although children must be ready to learn, schools also must be ready to teach. Unfortunately, as some schools have admirably sought to implement high standards for all students, they have increased inappropriate academic demands on young children or have instituted readiness tests that hinder children's entry into the public schools. Many experts have disputed the rationale behind the testing of young children as well as the value of early academic instruction. The National Education Goals Panel's Goal One advisory group has noted that the best way to reach high standards may be to attend to children's general well-being and provide learning environments and experiences rich in opportunities to explore, rather than to provide earlier formal academic instruction."

Consequently, Dean states that, as policymakers begin to look at a broader definition of readiness, they are also focusing on services that assist children in making the transition from early childhood care and education settings into school programs.

Transitions to School identifies many factors resulting in this attention to early childhood transitions. An increasing number of preschool-age children are involved in out-of-home early childhood care and education environments that are quite different in both philosophy and practice- from the public schools. Kindergartens have become more widespread, but at the same time increasingly academic in their emphasis; many children, consequently, experience an early failure that may negatively affect their future success in school.

Other reasons for the focus on transitioning are the general agreement on the importance of the involvement of parents in their children's education, systemic education reform efforts, and interest in collaboration among service providers to better serve children and their families. Efforts to assist Head Start children successfully enter public schools began in the late 1960s, and since the 1980s strategies have been developed to facilitate the transitions of children with disabilities. The report states, however, that "the current interest in transitions is unique because it focuses on the -needs of, all children."

Her review of research and anecdotal evidence has resulted in Stief's compiling a list of the components of successful transition programs. Such programs include:

quality preschool experiences
quality elementary school experiences
parent involvement
a continuum of family-focused and community-based services
communication and collaboration between preschool and elementary school staff
preparation of children for the transition
clear goals and objectives agreed upon by all-parties involved
a shared commitment to the successful transitions of young children
shared decision-making among home, preschool, school, and community representatives
cultural sensitivity
specific assignment of roles and responsibilities among all parties, including interagency agreements
training and technical assistance on collaboration and systems-building
reasonable time and adequate fiscal resources to allow staff to carry out assigned role's
specific timelines for transition activities
continuous program evaluation and improvement efforts.

The limited research which is available, Stief writes, indicates that transition services assist children in maintaining the gains brought about by early intervention programs. Such services also result in children having fewer problems adjusting to school, lower levels of stress, greater self-confidence, fewer classroom behavior problems, and less difficulty in reading. Because transitioning is proving effective, the National Governors' Association encourages states to also consider establishing early childhood units in elementary schools; revising assessment practices; reforming the licensing, training, and compensation of all early childhood teachers; and eliminating the practice of retention in the early grades.

Percentage of Schools Implementing the Activity	Transition Activity
Transition Activities in Schools With Kindergarten Classes 1989-90 School Year
10%	systematic communication between kindergarten teachers and previous caregivers or teachers about entering kindergarten children
11%	joint staff training with the participation of more than half of the staff of community preschool programs
12%	kindergarten curriculum designed to build on the preschool program
13%	formal transition policy
19%	information-sharing about children's developmental progress by more than half of the staff of community preschool programs
32%	visits by all children and parents prior to school, entry
39%	informing parents of their rights and responsibilities in the public school system
47%	formal program for school visits
47%	involving parents in classroom activities designed to ease children's transition to school
from J. M. Love, M. E. Logue, J. V. Trudeau, and K. Thayer, Transitions to Kindergarten in American Schools (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of Education, 1992), as quoted in E. Stief's Transitions to School.

Copies of Transitions to School are available at a cost of $15.00 each from the National Governors' Association, 444 North Capitol Street, Washington, DC 20001-1512, (202) 624-5300.

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Table of Contents

Transitions: A Historical Perspective

Annotated Bibliography

Responding to Misinformation About Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Transitions: Current Recommendations