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Table of Contents

• The Effects of Positive Transitions on Early Literacy
• Transitions Affect Everyone
• Does Class Size Make A Difference?
• Worksheets in Kindergarten

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The Effects of Positive Transitions on Early Literacy

The report of the California Reading Task Force, Every Child A Reader, and the subsequent reading advisory, Teaching Reading, recommends strong collaboration between preschool and K-12 educators to effect reading reform (Recommendation 6). It also recommends planning and coordination at the state and local levels to ensure effective transitions into kindergarten. Although positive transitions may not directly result in reading success for each child, the task force members recognize their potential to enhance early literacy development.

When preschool staff provide a developmentally appropriate literacy curriculum and elementary school staff build on previous literacy experiences, children become more successful readers. Research indicates that children who become successful readers tend to share many of the following characteristics, all of which have implications for early childhood programs:

1. They have had 1,000 or more hours of literacy experiences prior to starting school, including demonstrations, shared storybook reading, literacy play, alphabet games and songs, phonemic awareness activities, and explorations of letters and print. (Patricia M. Cunningham and Richard L. Allington, Classrooms That Work. New York: Harper Collins College Publisher, 1994, p. 22)
   
2. They love reading and books and see the purpose of reading. (Marilyn J. Adams, Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1990, pp. 60-61)
   
3. They have participated in phonemic awareness activities. (H. K. Yopp, "Developing Phonemic Awareness in Young Children," THE READING TEACHER, May, 1992; J. K. Torgesen and Brian R. Bryant, Phonological Awareness Training for Reading. Austin, Texas: PRO-ED, 1994; C. Juel, "Learning to Read and Write: A Longitudinal Study of Fifty-Four Children from First Through Fourth Grade," JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, Vol. 80 [1988], pp. 437-447)
   
4. They have been included in conversations and treated as competent language partners. Judith A. Schickedanz, More Than the ABCs-The Early Stages of Reading and Writing Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1988, p. 3)
   
5. In play activities, they have used symbols to represent objects (e.g., a block for a telephone), taken the perspective of others, used increasingly efficient mental strategies to remember information and solve problems, and predicted and developed story plays for themselves and their peers to "act out.' All of these kinds of activities enhance children's capabilities to understand the use of symbols in reading. (J. V. Hoorn, P. M. Nourot, and B. Scales, Play at the Center of the Curriculum. New York: Macmillan, pp. 20-25,133-147,193-216, and 220-225)
   
6. They have experienced a print-rich environment in which they were led to notice print at the grocery store or laundromat, on business logos, and so forth. (Green Brock, "The Influences of Social Context on Kindergarten Journal Writing," JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION, Vol. 7, No. 1 [1992], pp. 5-19)
   
7. Through books, pictures, and stories they have been exposed to the characteristics of print, including directionality, purpose, mechanics, and book handling. (M. Clay, The Early Detection of Reading Difficulties [third edition]. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann, 1985)
   
8. Their early experiences with literacy emanate from real-life contexts that are meaningful and interesting to them: for example, following a recipe to make cookies, selecting a birthday card for grandmother, reading a story with father. (Laying the Foundation for School Success-Recommendations for Improving Early Learning Programs. Baltimore: Maryland State Department of Education [Commission on the Early Years], 1992, p. 43)
   
9. Children who are successful readers have been read to by adults who expanded on the children’s text-related comments; that is, the children have related the text to their own experiences, they have used the text to enhance their thinking, and they have asked progressively more challenging questions about text content. (Bridges to Literacy. Edited by D. K. Dickinson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1994)
   
10. Their parents and kindergarten teachers share a common understanding of the attributes and attitudes children need as they enter school. (Jerry West, Elvie Germino Hausken, and Mary Collins, Readiness for Kindergarten: Parent and Teacher Beliefs. Washington, DC: USDOE/Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1993)
    
11. In the prephonic stage, they have experimented with writing by using a variety of materials in a meaningful context. Their early attempts at writing include drawing, copying, and invented spelling. (Judith A. Schickedanz, More Than the ABCs, pp. 94-95)
    
12. They have watched educational television programs such as Sesame Street or Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood instead of adult programs and entertainment cartoons. ("Study Finds Educational TV Lends Preschoolers Even Greater Advantages." NEW YORK TIMES, May 31,1995. Excerpts of a study by the Center for Research on the Influences of Television on Children, University of Kansas)
    
13. Their parents are actively involved in their learning and show an interest in their progress. (D. R. Entwisle, "The Child's Social Environment and Learning to Read," READING RESEARCH: ADVANCES IN THEORY AND PRACTICE (VOL. 1). New York: Academic Press, 1979; and C. E. Snow, "Literacy and Language: Relationships During the Preschool Years," HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 165-189)
    
14. They are physically healthy, rested, and well nourished; able to communicate needs, wants, and thoughts orally, and enthusiastic and curious in approaching new activities. (A Public School Survey on Kindergarten Readiness. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, USDOE/Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1993; order number NCES 93-410)

The above article and the grid below are reprinted from Continuity for Young Children: Positive Transitions to Elementary School (Sacramento: California Department of Education, 1997). Copies of this publication are available for $7.50 each, plus shipping and handling charges, from the Bureau of Publications, Sales Unit, California Department of Education, P. 0. Box 271, Sacramento, California 958120271, (916) 445-1260.

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Transitions Affect Everyone

A child's transition from preschool or home to elementary school marks an important step that involves not only the child but also the child's parents, preschool teacher, and kindergarten teacher. Each plays a different role in the transition and, therefore, has different questions about the experience.

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Does Class Size Make A Difference?

For the past 15 years, class-size initiatives have frequently been debated and implemented at the state level via legislation. While states continue to be interested in reducing class size in the primary grades, the initial state-wide costs associated with such efforts are high. Some districts consider class size to be such a critical component for improving student outcomes that they use local funds to begin such a program. Such a local initiative in Burke County Schools in Morganton, North Carolina, shows how districts can impact class size, and how reduced class size can affect other programmatic components in the primary grades.

Student Achievement

In the 1991-92 school year, the reduced class-size initiative began in first grade, with four elementary schools selected to have class sizes of 15. The remaining 1 0 elementary schools in the district had class sizes of approximately 25, and were available as "control" schools. Students in the "experimental" condition were matched as closely as possible to students from the control schools.

First year evaluation results (1991-92) of the reduced class-size initiative [of first-grade classes in the four elementary schools] were positive. Reduced class-size students significantly outperformed the control students [class size of 25] on both the state math test and the D.C. Heath reading test.

The project was expanded in the second year to include the first grades in all 14 elementary schools and the second grades in the four original pilot schools. The second project-year evaluation (1992-93) again showed positive results: at the end of second grade, after two years of smaller classes, reduced class-size students significantly outperformed the control students on the D.C. Heath reading test and the state math test. Reduced class size at the second grade, thus, produced achievement gains in reading and math over and above gains produced in the first year, when compared to control groups.

The project was expanded in 1993-94 to include all first grades, second grades in seven schools, and third grades in the four pilot schools. At the end of the third-grade school year, after three years in smaller classes, reduced class-size students were compared to the control students selected at the beginning of first grade. Reduced class-size students significantly outperformed regular class-size students by approximately a year in reading and math as measured by the North Carolina End-of Grade (EOG) test developmental scale scores.

In 1994-95, the initiative was expanded to include all second grade classes. For the 1995-96 school year, the project was expanded to include the third grades at two additional elementary schools. Student enrollment for the reduced class-size initiative for the 1995-96 school year was 2,860 with 1,193 first graders, 1,125 second graders, and 542 third graders.

Personnel

Since the 1980s, the state of North Carolina has funded teacher assistants in all primary classrooms (K-3). With the reduced class-size initiative, Burke County officials made the decision not to use assistants in the smaller-sized classrooms. Since officials were prohibited from using assistant position money for teaching positions, displaced assistants were trained to work in a one-to-one tutoring program or were moved to work in the upper grades of their assigned schools. Some assistants who quit or retired were not replaced. The elimination of teacher assistants in K-3 has been the most controversial aspect of the initiative, because support for the assistants is strong in the community, and their reassignment/removal has been Questioned (In 1995, the North Carolina Legislature passed a law that gave Burke County and Mecklenburg County unrestricted authority to convert ‘assistant’ dollars to ‘teacher’ dollars.)

Parent/Teacher Communication

Teachers reported that they had better and more frequent communication with parents than in previous years with larger classes. Parents noted that in reduced class-size schools, they could talk with teachers almost daily.

Instruction

With fewer students in relatively large rooms, a more varied and active instructional program was utilized, such as learning and activity centers, project-based instruction, and experiments. Such instructional techniques complemented the provision of a developmentally appropriate primary program. Teachers considered it beneficial to have large and small-group activities for children in a noncompetitive atmosphere. Worksheets were discouraged as a method of instruction; active exploration was regarded as crucial. The types of activities incorporated into classrooms on a daily basis included reading stories to children as well as using centers for small group work and manipulatives to teach mathematics. Other instructional activities included motor exercises, music, dramatic play, and educational games.

Assessment

With the smaller class sizes, district personnel realized that assessing student progress could be made more personal and ongoing. School officials formed a study group of teachers to work with a consultant to design a primary student writing and reading portfolio. Administrators and teachers believed that the portfolios, which consisted of a reading log and monthly student writing samples, were a more individualized and authentic assessment of student work on the primary level than standardized tests and a more effective communication tool in discussing student progress.

Professional Development

Influenced by a revised Standard Course of Study in North Carolina, the primary-level curriculum programs in mathematics, science, and reading changed at the same time the reduced class-size initiative in Burke County was started. The state math curriculum went to an exploratory approach. The science curriculum was designed around thematic units which included a "hands-on" component. Reading books were literature-based. During the first three years of the program, staff development was intensive, and consultants conducted a series of workshops in the different curriculum areas. A staff development program continues with new primary teachers to the system receiving inservice trainings in reading and math.

Long-Range Planning

Based on financial resources and space, the ultimate plan is to have a class size of 15 students in every first, second, and third grade classroom in Burke County.

The above article contains information adapted and condensed from Paula Egelson, Patrick Harman, and C.M. Achilles’ Does Class Size Make a Difference? Recent Findings from State and District Initiatives (University of North Carolina at Greensboro: South Eastern Regional Vision for Education [SERVE], 1996). Copies of the entire document are available at a cost of $4.00 each, plus $2.50 for shipping and handling, from SERVE, 345 South Magnolia Drive, Suite D-23, Tallahassee, Florida 32301, (800) 352-6001.

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Worksheets in Kindergarten

The kindergarten program at Canon Elementary School in Colorado Springs is accredited by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. The introduction to its Kindergarten Handbook, developed for parents, states that the school's primary task is to encourage children to develop into life-long learners. "To accomplish this, we believe that the school and the home must work together with mutual respect and consideration."

Among the information this resource book provides for families is a discussion about the inappropriateness of worksheets in the kindergarten program. By accessing current knowledge and research about best classroom practices, the staff compiled the following list of reasons to not use worksheets:

Appropriate practices for young children include activities that are as "hands-on" in nature as possible. At Canon, your child will not be doing a large quantity of worksheets.

Here are the main objections to using worksheets with young children:

1. Children at this age do not understand abstract concepts well. Letters, numbers and shapes on a piece of paper are abstract symbols representing something else that is real.
   
2. Children learn basic concepts by using their senses, by manipulating objects. They will not learn anything new with worksheets. At most, worksheets will provide "drill" for concepts already learned.
   
3. Young children don't have the fine-motor control to color within the lines, or do many of the other tasks often asked on typical worksheets.
   
4. "Seat work" - sitting at a table doing worksheets-is hard for young children. They have a short attention span and find it difficult to sit still for more than a few minutes at a time.
   
5. Worksheets are not fun ... not for long anyway. As soon as the fascination of "playing school" wears off, they become drudgery (Think back to your own days in elementary school. Very few adults remember loving to do workbook pages). We want to make children eager, enthusiastic learners, not people who avoid learning situations.
   
6. Worksheets do not develop creativity. In some cases they may actively inhibit the creative process in children. When children are given patterns to copy or color in, they become less likely to come up with their own ways of drawing things.
   
7. Teachers sometimes use worksheets merely to "occupy" children-to use up time. There are so many better things children can be doing with their time.

In November 1984's issue of YOUNG CHILDREN (NAEYC), Carol Seefeldt says, "Asking children to complete worksheets may be a form of stealing. Every time children are asked to fill in a worksheet, they are being robbed of opportunities to think and learn by doing, to experience individualization of instruction, and to learn to cooperate."

Montaine Bronner is the kindergarten teacher at Canon, and Aljean Tucker is the building principal. They may be reached at Canon Elementary School, 1201 West Cheyenne Road, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80906, (719) 475-6140.

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This page last updated: December 13, 2007